Integrated Wellness · Research education

Science, in plain language.

A working vocabulary for better questions. Explore 51 terms from amino acids to evidence quality.

51 terms

Accelerated approval: An FDA pathway for serious conditions that can rely on a measure reasonably likely to predict benefit. Further studies must verify the anticipated clinical benefit.
Actin: A protein that forms the cell's internal scaffolding and lets cells change shape and move.
Agonist: A molecule that activates a receptor, mimicking the body's natural signal. An antagonist blocks it instead.
Amino acid: The 20 basic building blocks that link together to form peptides and proteins.
AMPK: The cell's energy sensor. When activated, it switches cells toward burning glucose and fat.
Amylin: A hormone released with insulin that slows digestion and signals fullness to the brain.
Analog: A lab-made molecule modelled on a natural one, often tweaked to last longer or act more selectively.
Angiogenesis: The formation of new blood vessels, essential for delivering oxygen and nutrients to healing tissue.
BDNF: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor: a protein that supports the survival and growth of brain cells.
Bioavailability: How much of an administered substance reaches the circulation in active form. Route and formulation can substantially change exposure.
Cardiolipin: A fat molecule in the inner mitochondrial membrane that keeps the energy-making machinery organised.
Clinical significance: Whether a change meaningfully affects health or daily life. This differs from statistical significance, which addresses compatibility with a statistical model.
Clinical trial phases: Phase I generally explores safety and pharmacology; Phase II explores dose and efficacy; Phase III tests benefit and risk in larger studies. Phase alone does not guarantee study quality or approval.
Collagen: The main structural protein in skin, tendons and connective tissue.
Compounding: Preparing a medication for particular clinical needs under applicable law. Compounded drugs are not FDA-approved and do not undergo the same premarket review.
Confounding: When another factor influences both the exposure and outcome, making an association appear causal when it may not be.
Contraindication: A condition in which a treatment should not be used because the risk is unacceptable. A short educational safety summary is not a complete prescribing label.
Evidence grade: An editorial description of study maturity and certainty, not a safety score. This library separates human outcomes, human research, preclinical research and limited/uncertain evidence; regulatory status is shown separately.
FDA approval: US authorisation to market a drug for a specific use, after review of clinical trial evidence.
GABA: The brain's main calming (inhibitory) chemical messenger.
Ghrelin / GH secretagogue: Ghrelin is the 'hunger hormone'. Its receptor also triggers growth hormone release; drugs that act on it are called GH secretagogues.
GHRH: Growth hormone–releasing hormone: the brain signal that tells the pituitary to release growth hormone.
GIP: Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide: a second gut hormone that enhances insulin release after meals.
GLP-1: Glucagon-like peptide-1: a gut hormone released after eating that boosts insulin, slows digestion and signals fullness.
Glucagon: A pancreatic hormone that helps maintain blood glucose, particularly between meals. Other metabolic effects depend on the physiological and experimental context.
GnRH / LH / FSH: GnRH from the brain triggers LH and FSH from the pituitary, which drive testosterone, oestrogen and ovulation.
Growth factor: A signalling protein that stimulates cells to grow, divide, migrate or repair.
Growth hormone (GH): A pituitary hormone that drives growth in childhood and regulates muscle, bone and fat metabolism in adults.
Half-life: The time it takes for half of a substance to be cleared from the body. Longer half-life means less frequent dosing in trials.
IGF-1: Insulin-like growth factor 1, produced mainly by the liver in response to growth hormone. It carries out many of GH's growth effects.
Immunogenicity: The ability of a substance to trigger an immune response, sometimes including antibodies or hypersensitivity. Aggregates and impurities can affect this risk.
Inflammation / NF-κB: The immune system's response to injury or infection. NF-κB is a master switch that turns inflammatory genes on.
Insulin sensitivity: How well cells respond to insulin. Higher sensitivity means less insulin is needed to control blood sugar.
Melanocortin receptors: A receptor family controlling skin pigment, appetite, inflammation and sexual arousal.
Mitochondria: Structures inside cells that produce most of the body's energy (ATP). Often called the cell's power plants.
NAD+: A coenzyme involved in energy metabolism and other reactions. Its concentration varies by tissue and context; changing a biomarker does not prove slower aging.
Neurogenesis / synapses: Neurogenesis is the creation of new neurons; synapses are the connections between them.
Observational study: Researchers observe exposures and outcomes without randomly assigning treatment. Associations may reflect confounding rather than cause and effect.
Off-label: Use of an approved drug for a purpose, dose or group not included in its approval.
Pegylation (PEG): Attaching polyethylene glycol chains to a molecule so it is cleared more slowly and stays in circulation longer.
Peptide: A short chain of amino acids (usually 2–50). Many act as messengers that tell cells what to do.
Pituitary gland: A pea-sized gland at the base of the brain that releases hormones controlling growth, reproduction and stress.
Preclinical / in vitro: Research done in cells (in vitro) or animals before human testing. Promising preclinical results often don't translate to humans.
Randomized controlled trial: A study assigning people by chance to intervention and comparison groups. Randomization helps reduce bias but does not eliminate all study limitations.
Receptor: A protein on or inside a cell that binds a signal. Depending on the molecule and receptor, binding can activate, block or modify a response.
Senescent cells: Damaged cells that stop dividing but don't die, releasing inflammatory signals. Senolytics aim to clear them.
Surrogate endpoint: A laboratory or physical measure used to stand in for how someone feels, functions or survives. Improving it does not always improve the actual clinical outcome.
Telomeres / telomerase: Protective caps on chromosome ends that shorten with each division. Telomerase is the enzyme that rebuilds them.
Thymus / T-cells: The thymus is a gland where T-cells — key immune cells that coordinate attacks on infections — mature.
Visceral fat: Deep belly fat stored around internal organs, linked to metabolic and heart risk.
WADA: World Anti-Doping Agency, which publishes the list of substances banned in sport.

Definitions simplify scientific concepts; their meaning can vary by study context. They do not establish that a molecule has a clinical benefit.

Put these terms into context: start with the research primer